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By Michael Maki, Natural Resources Consultants, Seattle, WA Editor's Note:  The following is adapted from a consultant's report concerning the unique agricultural buffer plan in Skagit County, WA which was drafted in response to the Washington State Growth Management Act’s attempts to protect "critical" habitat for salmon congruent with the Endangered Species Act listings of Northwest salmon. See the April 2000 issue of the Temperate Agroforester for related stories. A buffer may be defined as an area that protects another area from negative impacts or influences, a kind of neutral zone of insulation. In agricultural areas buffers may be seen and defined from two perspectives: as a buffer o­n the effects of agricultural practices o­n adjacent water bodies, and as a linear habitat zone surrounding streams and creating a microclimate similar to natural conditions. Currently, there is a popular environmental belief that the best approach to the conservation of riparian areas is passive management, leaving vegetation to re-establish itself through natural processes. In forested areas the natural re-establishment of vegetation connected with streamside forested leave strips maybe a practical and viable solution. However, this approach does not well serve salmon habitat in areas thoroughly altered by agricultural practices or other human development.   The amount of time required for natural systems to "restore themselves" may leave biotic communities and critical salmon habitat compromised and inadequately protected for many decades. Given the immediacy of the concern for salmon stocks in the Pacific Northwest, and the extent of human development that has taken place, it is not prudent to leave protection and recovery to chance nor to the extended time frames required for natural processes to reestablish the necessary functions for salmon habitat. Strategies for habitat enhancement can be accelerated and directed through appropriate and timely management activities, delivering desired ecological goods and services in less time o­n less land, and with more certainty. There is a significant investment cost in successfully implementing these strategies, with maintenance that must be supported over time until stand establishment. Although we would all like to o­ne-time plant riparian areas with mixtures of the right species to form a permanent stand, and have it turn into a self-sustaining native plant community, this is highly unlikely without effective post-planting support. Active management of the buffer vegetation using silvicultural and agricultural techniques can accelerate the vegetative process beyond what a passively managed agricultural riparian buffer program would produce. The Skagit Managed Buffer Plan uses a managed successional pathway to reclaim ground by creating immediate shade and competition for existing invasive riparian vegetation, thinning this densely planted deciduous "cover crop", and following with long-term conifers and other native or site appropriate species. At a larger scale riparian silviculture, still in its infancy, can utilize rich moist bottomland soils for perennial tree crop production, while enhancing riparian functions and in turn supporting salmon recovery. Agricultural buffers often simply concern themselves with nutrient filtration and sediment control. Channelized sheet flow is the most important weak link in nutrient and sediment control programs, and active monitoring and immediate remedial actions can address these "leaks." Riparian silviculture can provide a suite of functions, leading up to large woody debris (LWD) production. Common definition of buffer width is derived from LWD sourcing through random recruitment. Since the likelihood of a tree falling naturally into a stream (in a way that directly benefits aquatic habitat) is low, the largest amount of land that can possibly contribute to LWD sources is seen as necessary; thus the 100 year site potential tree height (SPTH) has been developed as the buffer width standard to allow for this natural recruitment. However, if trees are directly placed into the stream, and done so in specific ways, the area needed to produce sustainable supplies of LWD is reduced dramatically. This is o­ne of the basic premises of the Skagit Managed Buffer, a process we have termed "conscription" as opposed to natural, passive recruitment. To work optimally, these managed buffers must be well planned, established, maintained and monitored for effectiveness. An effectively managed buffer is particularly well suited to agricultural lands as they can usually be integrated with regular farming practices (e.g., mowing, weed control, pruning) and can even feasibly contribute to farm income without undermining their protective function and thus eventually perhaps cover the cost of management. "Regulatory buffers", those areas simply declared off limits to landowner use will not attract the kind of support of a more incentive-based system. For farmers to see the values of "riparian farming" the process must be credible and supported by the general public whose broader ecological goals riparian protection serves. Functionality and Management Among the most important recognized functions provided to the aquatic system by the vegetation in riparian areas are: shade, streambank stability, sediment and chemical filtration, and input of large woody debris and organic matter. All of these functions are influenced by the species composition, structure, size and age of the trees, shrubs and understory plants in a riparian corridor. In riparian zones that border intensively-managed agricultural land, riparian areas are often heavily colonized by invasive plants such as blackberry, Japanese knotweed, or Reed canarygrass. These plant communities may actually support a number of functions pretty well, but the provision of LWD through development of mature trees, which drives so much riparian restoration planning, can be nearly impossible in these marginal agricultural jungles. Active management of riparian buffers offers some important advantages that will hasten and strengthen their ability to perform ecologically-beneficial functions. For example, strategic placement of large woody debris and other large substrate elements into stream channels immediately provides structural diversity, hydraulic complexity, and refuge from predators for fish. Management for coarse woody debris production is facilitated by tree thinning in the riparian zone encouraging the optimal development of large trees. Appropriate spacing of trees including thinning and pruning encourages canopy development that allows for optimal shade and production of sustainable supplies of leaf and needle litter. The long term goal is a connected network of established riparian buffers with a combination of herbaceous and woody plant species. Ecological Restoration It must be remembered that the purpose of a restoration effort is to establish, as quickly as possible, functional riparian buffers along stream reaches where there currently are not well-established buffers. Actually, "restoration" is rather a misnomer, since we are not trying to re-create pre-European conditions; instead we are looking for a new equilibrium that buffers the effects of cropping systems from streams that are increasing in habitat complexity and resilience. Concurrent is the concept of re-establishing ecological processes, which will sustain the desired conditions and pathways. In highly modified agricultural areas, the goal is to foster processes that will deliver desired functions and support sustainable and innovative agroecosystems. It is unreasonable to expect that restoration will ever lead to the restoration of the riparian ecosystem that existed prior to agricultural development. In many cases, the species composition, abundance, and diversity in managed agricultural zone riparian buffers will vary significantly from that which characterized the original riparian community. There is little empirical field data to guide us toward such an objective as it pertains to salmon, and the problem is confounded by larger processes and trends (e.g., ocean and climatic conditions), not the least of which is chronic over-harvest. There is a question as to whether old growth forest conditions were even the most conducive to salmon productivity. For example, autotrophic system components, driven by sunlight, are more net productive than shaded reaches. Enhancement of agricultural riparian areas via active, focused buffer management can be a proactive and fairly straightforward approach to ecological development of interactive aquatic and terrestrial habitat. Management strategies should be designed to maintain desired conditions where they are currently adequate, and to accelerate riparian plant community trajectories where processes are currently impaired. Adaptive management is an approach that implements a range of conditions and controls, and responds to system changes through seeing management as o­ngoing scientific experimentation. How rapidly any of these habitat-enhancing efforts will impact salmon productivity in watersheds of the Pacific Northwest remains to be seen. It has never been done before at the scale envisioned by the Endangered Species Act, and is indeed a grand experiment. This article originally appeared in the October 2001 issue of the Temperate Agroforester. Written by Tyler Carlson Parent Category: 2001 Vol. 9 Category: October No. 4 Published: 12 March 2014 riparian buffers ecosystem services management

Summary Deer browsing and inadequate soil moisture are most often the major constraints to a successful agroforestry planting in Central Wisconsin. Practical methods to address these constraints are being demonstrated o­n a 2 acre planting established in April 2007 o­n an abandoned field. The project used agroforestry principles to plan a multi-layered planting of trees, shrubs, and perennial plants that fully uses the light, water, and nutrient resources of the site. Species were planted in a modified alleyway design to demonstrate growth and yield potential for a variety of potential crops in an area of low rainfall, sandy soils, and high deer populations. A unique aspect of the project is the watering system. Natural field runoff is distributed through a system of terraces and supplemented with a drip irrigation system fed by stored barn roof runoff. The project demonstrates a diverse, profitable, and sustainable system that can be replicated at the specialty crop or commercial scale by farmers and forest woodlot owners. The demonstration project is partially funded by the U.S. Department of Agriculture National Agroforestry Center with support from the Golden Sands Resource Conservation and Development Council, Inc. Introduction Agroforestry combines agricultural and forestry practices to create a profitable and sustainable land use system for production of food and fiber. Erosion and water quality impacts are minimized. Tilling is reduced and harvesting is spread over the growing season for a diversity of crops. Presentations at workshops and discussions with the local Resource Conservation and Development Council, Inc. and University of Wisconsin Stevens Point College of Natural Resources staff prompted the landowners to explore the opportunities for an agroforestry planting o­n their tree farm in Portage County, Wisconsin. Studies suggest that agroforestry systems can realize substantial per acre profits by capturing niche and/or local markets. Landowners will be able to sell a greater diversity of products over a longer period of time, and at the same time protecting soil, air and water resources. Although there are many resources describing the potential for nut and berry crops (Finn 1999, Josiah & Lackey 2001, Josiah 2001a, Josiah 2001b, Vollmers, C. & E. Streed 1999), estimates of establishment costs and potential yields vary greatly. Based o­n estimates for several berry crops, establishing the crop may be $2-3000/acre and, o­nce established, profits may be in the range of $1-4,000/acre. Using the system described below, the crop would be planted o­n approximately 20-30% of an area; therefore costs and profits would be proportional. The objective of this project is to have a diversity of edible crops that also provides wildlife food and cover. The project will help to quantify the costs and potential revenues from such a system. Goals of this project are to: Stimulate the use of sustainable agriculture methods, including: adopting modified alley cropping systems, enhancing windbreaks, utilizing non-irrigated field corners, and using marginal uplands; Demonstrate ways to conserve moisture and reduce weed competition, including: terracing seed beds, mulching, and using drip irrigation systems with stored roof runoff and gravity flow; Document the survival, growth and yield of potential nut and fruit species for this area; and Expand the production of nut and berry crops by traditional farm operations as either small-scale specialty crops or larger-scale operations. Methods The site is ideal to demonstrate ways to maximize water and light use. Previous attempts to establish an orchard of American Chestnuts failed do to lack of moisture and damage from deer and rodents. The demonstration will especially address the need for adequate site preparation and deer damage control. The 2 acre field is primarily a Rosholt sandy loam soil with 1-6% slope. Runoff from an uphill area is funneled down a swale in the middle of the field, allowing water to be diverted along contours throughout the field. Ten-foot wide terraces were laid out along contour lines with a minimum of 10 feet between terraces. There are 5 planting beds each about 400 ft in length with 6 additional shorter beds for a total of 2,400 linear feet of beds (25% of the area). The alleyways were left in native grass cover. The planting includes a mix of trees and shrubs arranged to maximize the use of light, water, nutrient and water resources. Nut trees were planted o­n prepared seed beds with an under story of nut and berry shrubs, with herbaceous perennials included along the edge of the terraces. Each terrace has 2-3 rows of plants arranged according to their individual needs. Trees have about 20-ft spacing with 5-8 foot spacing for shrubs. Tall trees were planted o­n the uphill / northerly side to reduce shading of the intermediate and shorter shrubs. The arrangement of plants was mapped out o­n paper and surveyor flags used to locate each plant in the planting beds. Aluminum tags were wired to each tree and shrub with unique identification numbers for record keeping. The plants were inspected approximately two months after planting to determine status and measure diameter and height. A necessary part of the inspection was to correct the planting map to reflect the final location of each plant. Berry, fruit, and nut plants were selected to demonstrate a variety of potential agroforestry crops for Central Wisconsin. Over 40 species and varieties were planted o­n the site in the spring of 2007, including 240 trees, 480 shrubs, and 250 perennial plants. Nut trees included white oak, bur oak, shagbark hickory, American chestnut, black walnut, and butternut. Fruit trees included apple, crab apple, cherry, Nanking cherry, apricot, pear, and plum. Berry shrubs included blueberry, lingonberry, June berry, elderberry, buffaloberry, currant, highbush cranberry, raspberry, and blackberry. Hybrid hazel nut shrubs were also included. Herbaceous plants included strawberry, asparagus, rhubarb, and perennial herbs. False indigo plants were scattered throughout the site to promote nitrogen fixation with seeds of lupines, lead plant, and prairie clover planted representing other legumes. Plants were grouped according to growth requirements; for example: two beds contained the fruit trees and shrubs; herbaceous plants were planted in a low area with heavier soils and more moisture; acid-loving blueberries and lingonberries were planted in a bed with sulfur supplements; black walnuts and butternuts were planted in a separate area to minimize impacts allelopathic effects o­n other plants; and a small planting of hybrid poplar and willow was established to demonstrate the potential for a high yielding, short rotation crops for either fiber for pulp wood or biomass for energy. Weeds severely limit the survival and growth of new plantings. Beds were plowed the previous year to reduce weeds. Fabric mulch and over 90 cubic yards of wood chips were used in the beds. Analysis of soil samples showed an average pH of 6.8 (6.4 - 7.4), organic matter content of 1.8% (1.5-2.5%), and relatively good nutrient status. Fertilizer supplements are planned in the future. Deer browse relentlessly; however, many birds and other wildlife will benefit from the plantings without destroying them. An 8-foot high, 10-strand, high tension solar-powered electric fence was installed to control deer damage with a useful lifespan of up to 20 years for the fence. Tree shelter tubes were used to minimize rodent damage. Raptor control of rodents is also being encouraged by mowing alleyways to reduce cover and by installing a 20-ft raptor perch. Plants require an inch of rain or gallon of water per week for optimal growth in the sandy-loam soils at the site; however, the mulch reduces this requirement by reducing evapotranspiration and weed competition. The contour beds also provide an efficient way to catch surface runoff. To insure adequate soil moisture during dry periods, water runoff from a nearby barn roof is being stored and used in a drip irrigation system. Gravity flow is used to distribute the water. The water flows to the field in a buried 1 - inch line and then distributed to the plants using 1 inch line with a single emitter supplying 1 gallon per hour to each tree or shrub. In addition, soaker hose is used for plants growing close together. The water storage capacity requirement is based o­n climate data from the nearby Hancock Experimental Station for the past 25 years (1971-2004) for the critical April through September growing season. The average total rainfall for these six months is 23 inches or about an inch per week. Monthly average totals for April to September are 2.94, 3.65, 4.30, 4.00, 4.12, 3.56 inches, respectively. There are about 7 rainfalls per month of greater than 0.10 inches. Rainfall events averaged about 0.50 inches (excluding the rains less than 0.10 inches) with a maximum daily rainfall event of 9.43 inches. Based o­n the past 10 years (1995-2004), the longest string of dry days (<0.10 inches) during April through September are 22, 24, and 28 days which all occurred in late summer. In May and April there were typically six-seven 7-day periods with no rain, often two-three 10-day dry periods, and sometimes periods of 16-18 dry days. Therefore, it was determined that adequate storage for a 2 week dry period would be required. Rain water runoff from the barn roof is stored in two 1,100 gallon tanks inside the barn about 500 feet from the site. Gutters collect rainwater from 2,400 square foot of barn roof with the potential to collect over 1,100 gallons of water in a 1-inch rainfall event. The system was designed to capture all rainfall in typical rains but to prevent tank overflow in heavy downpours or when the tank was full. Downspouts from three sections of gutters were directed into a screened gutter manifold and then into the tanks. The tanks were located inside the barn loft to reduce sun damage with additional floor bracing required to support the tanks. The downspouts will be manually redirected to divert the water during the winter. Currently the irrigation system is under manual control based o­n rainfall and assessment of soil moisture. There are emitters for 330 plants and soaker hose for another 215 plants. Plants not irrigated include some in low areas that typically have adequate moisture and drought resistant plants such as buffaloberry and false indigo. The system was tested by collecting water in jars located along each of the irrigation lines. It was determined that to maintain uniform distribution, about 200 emitters/soakers is the maximum number to irrigate at o­ne time. This was especially true when the backup well system was used that had more pressure but o­nly a 1 inch hose connecting the well water to the system. Typically, two to three beds are watered for a 2-hour time, as needed. Irrigation benefits will be demonstrated in the first two planting beds. An identical set of species was planted in each of eight 100-foot sections. Half of the sections are being irrigated with the drip system while plants in the other sections will depend o­n rainfall and surface runoff. Harvesting berries will begin in the next few years with nut and fruit crops anticipated in 5 years for dwarf fruit trees and hazels, and 15 years for oaks and hickories. Yields will be measured and compared. Land-owners, neighbors, and friends will benefit from the harvests. Maintaining the planting will require annual monitoring of plant survival, treating diseases, weeding, mowing the alleyways, pruning, and fertilizing. The measure of success will be the survival and growth rates of the selected species. Detailed growth measurements will be taken the first few years to evaluate potential of the species included. Results/Discussion Based o­n our initial experience, establishing the agroforestry planting can be a challenging experience. Our initial measure of success is a 90% survival rate for trees and shrubs after two months in an average rainfall year. Ordering plants was a difficult task because nurseries often do not give complete information as to species, seedling size, mature size, etc. Plants were acquired from nine separate sources resulting in mix-ups in species sent and dates received. Mortality from o­ne nursery was twice as high as the other suppliers. Installing the deer fence and irrigation system had a steep learning curve. Perennial grasses and weeds were reduced by seed bed preparation and mulching; however, a full year of tilling and herbicides may be needed to adequately reduce the weeds. The use of tree shelters is problematic. Available tree shelters were used to minimize rodent damage with the expectation that deer damage would be eliminated by the deer fence. However, some mortality has been related to the tubes and concerns related to potential winter damage are well known. The success of the demonstration project has benefited from the input and support of several institutions and individuals. The project is partially funded by the U.S. Department of Agriculture National Agroforestry Center Grant 68-3A75-6-194 with support from the Golden Sands Resource Conservation and Development Council, Inc. The unique aspects of the project have generated interest resulting in volunteers helping with planting; donations of mulch, tree shelters and plants; and lots of advice. The proposed project provides many opportunities for demonstrating agroforestry approaches to other landowners, farmers, and natural resource students. Information and technology transfer will occur in a variety of ways, including: Lessons-learned report describing design process for other landowners; Brochures distributed to site visitors, media, government agencies, etc.; Sign at the site explaining the project; Outreach through tours and talks; Press releases and articles; and Utilization of the site by University of Wisconsin Stevens Point classes. By  Richard J. Olson , Landowner and William Ebert, Golden Sands RC&D Council, Inc. Publications Finn, C. 1999.  Temperate Berry Crops . p. 324-334. In: J. Janick (ed.), Perspectives o­n new crops and new uses. ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA. Josiah, S. 2001a.  Hybrid Hazelnuts: An Agroforestry Opportunity . U. of Nebraska, Lincoln School of Natural Resources Sciences and Cooperative Extension. Josiah, S. 2001b.  Marketing Specialty Forest Products . U. of Nebraska, Lincoln School of Natural Resources Sciences and Cooperative Extension. Josiah, S. & J. Lackey. 2001.  Edible Woody Landscapes for People and Wildlife . U. of Nebraska, Lincoln School of Natural Resources Sciences and Cooperative Extension. Streed, E. 2000.  Minnesota-Grown Opportunities: Hybrid Poplar . Center for Alternative Plant and Animal Products (CAPAP-U of MN). 352 Alderman Hall, St. Paul, MN 55108. Thomas, Margaret G. and David R. Schumann. 1993.  Income Opportunities in Special Forest Products--Self-Help Suggestions for Rural Entrepreneurs.  Agriculture Information Bulletin AIB666, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC. Vollmers, C., E. Streed. 1999.  Marketing Specialty Forest Products . FO-07278. University of Minnesota Extension Service, St. Paul, MN. Parent Category: 2007 Vol. 15 Category: September No. 3 Published: 04 April 2014 alley cropping economics management planting design browse management

Agroforestry is playing a role in the early days of a new black walnut industry developing in western Oregon. Among the first private landowners who have planted black walnut o­n their farms for timber are several innovators experimenting with intercropping as a means of improving the growth and economics of the tree crop.  Those involved in the new industry are optimistic that the Northwest can develop a market niche based o­n the unique properties of their home-grown black walnut. The oldest business in Oregon specializing in walnut wood is Goby Walnut Products. The business was started in 1975 by Gary Goby, who is also President of the Oregon Chapter of the national Walnut Council. Agroforestry Trials A member of the Oregon Chapter, Peter Kenagy, is experimenting with a variety of trees, forages and crops for interplanting in black walnut plantations o­n his 420 acre Willamette Valley farm. In o­ne of his first plantings of black walnut four years ago, Kenagy interplanted a wildlife forage mix between rows of trees planted at 10 X 20 ft. spacing. The 10 ft. wide forage strips, which include sorghum, sudan grass, buckwheat and sunflower, are intended to attract birds and other wildlife. Plastic tree guards (political signs creatively recycled) protect the walnut trees both from herbicides sprayed along the tree row to reduce moisture competition, and also against rodent damage. Kenagy plans to maintain the wildlife forage for 6 to 7 years until the trees achieve canopy closure. In a recently cleared area, Peter Kenagy has tried intercropping black walnut with sweet corn. He planted pre-germinated nuts in rows 20 ft apart, sprayed o­nce for weed control, and then drilled corn seed between the tree rows. The same traveling boom spray gun was used to irrigate the walnut/corn trial as for crops in the adjacent fields. Kenagy said that the corn produced about the same yield as in his other fields and provided the economic justification for irrigating the new black walnut plantation. Kenagy is also testing several fast-growing, short-rotation tree crops for interplanting with black walnut. Hybrid poplar and paulownia act as a nurse crop to force straighter growth of the black walnut and also provide a source of income early in the walnut rotation. Poplar has proved to be too competitive when planted at the same time as walnut in Kenagy's trials, so he now plans to plant black walnut at double the final density two or three years prior to planting poplar or paulownia. Another Northwest innovator is J.T. Lowe who intercrops black walnut with Douglas fir that are managed for Christmas trees o­n his farm near Portland. The firs are planted at 5 X 5 ft. spacing, within walnuts planted at 15 X 15 ft. spacing, and harvested for Christmas trees at after 7 years. However, in older stands of healthy walnuts, Gary Goby has seen evidence of juglone induced growth inhibition of young interplanted fir trees when their roots intertwine with the black walnut. Unique Hybrids Rather than utilizing eastern black walnut (Juglans nigra), strains recommended by the Oregon Chapter of the Walnut Council for farm planting in the Northwest are hybrid crosses of eastern black walnut and California black walnut (J. hindsii). Originally developed as rootstocks for English walnut, these interspecific hybrids are well adapted to the Willamette Valley of Oregon. There the hybrids grow almost twice as fast as eastern black walnut, according to Gary Goby, and produce better quality timber than the California black walnut. Some of the larger trees planted by early settlers exceeded 5 ft. in diameter at harvest, he said, and yielded high grade lumber in large dimensions. Favorable growing conditions in western Oregon, mineral content of the soil, and the absence of damaging storms as in the Midwest, contribute to special colors and grain patterns in the wood. Gary Goby frequently finds orange tones in the wood he processes, along with black highlights. His wood inventory contains examples of a wide variety of decorative figures, particularly desirable for furniture, gunstocks and musical instrument making. Local trees are capable of producing much larger timbers than are commonly available from Eastern sources; Goby has produced top quality "clears" exceeding 8/4 (2 inch thick) X 10 ft. long X 28 inches wide. He has observed the beginning of heartwood formation after 18-20 years in the Oregon crosses, compared to o­nly 9-10 years in eastern black walnut. Furthermore, Goby does not steam sapwood to sell as heartwood, a common practice among eastern sawmills. Custom Milling Goby travels throughout western Oregon and Washington, buying trees offered to him by private landowners. After the logs are first processed o­n contract by a sawmill near Lacomb west of the Cascade Mountains, he drys and resaws the rough lumber at his own custom drying and milling operation near Albany. Goby Walnut Products offers a variety of products, including kiln dried lumber in 4/4 to 8/4 (1-2 inch) thicknesses, air-dried 10/4 to 16/4 (2-4 inch) lumber, gunstock blanks, musical instrument stock, resawn veneers and turning stock. Milling about 30,000 BF (board feet) of timber per year, the company sells to both national and international markets. Although the black walnut trees harvested today come from rural homesteads and suburban homes, Goby sees increasing interest among rural landowners in planting black walnut woodlots specifically for timber. This is a difficult, long-term decision for many, he said, since 50-80 years are typically required to grow trees of sufficient size (at least 28 inch diameter) for maximum return o­n their investment. While commercial veneer manufacturers are not interested in black walnut at present because of concerns about saw-damaging metal objects hidden inside old farmstead trees, Goby foresees a valuable veneer market developing for plantation-grown trees in future. Planting black walnut for timber is "not for selfish people," Goby believes. "This is stewardship in its most basic definition." Nevertheless, for landowners (and their families) able to initially invest about $1000 per acre to establish a black walnut plantation, and to wait 50-80 years for final harvest, the potential rewards are attractive. Goby pays a higher rate of sawlog stumpage to the landowner, at least $1 per BF, than in the eastern US, where the going rate for stumpage is closer to 35 cents per BF. In the future, he believes the price of carefully grown black walnut timber can o­nly increase. "Young men plant radishes," he says, "old men plant trees." A study comparing the costs and returns of black walnut to Douglas Fir, the Northwest's most common timber species, as farm tree crops was prepared in 1992 by a private forester. Based o­n a 100 acre plantation of each species, the estimated value for walnut harvested at age 80 years was projected to be $10 million compared to o­nly $1.5 million for fir, even including a pre-commercial thinning for the fir. Intercropping Agroforestry could make the economics of black walnut culture more attractive in the Northwest as it has done in the Midwest. Many possibilities are being demonstrated locally through the efforts of Peter Kenagy, Joe Lowe and others in the Walnut Council. In addition to annual crops (e.g. corn) and short-rotation trees (e.g. poplar) already under trial, shade-tolerant, bareroot nursery stock or flower bulbs could be produced between the walnut trees. While cattle are likely to cause damage by rubbing the trees, it may be possible to graze sheep o­n grass-clover pasture sown in strips between the tree rows. Nut production is an important source of early returns in many black walnut plantings. However, most of the hybrid walnuts now planted in Oregon are not good edible nut producers because of difficulties with meat extraction, according to Gary Goby. Some thin-shelled varieties, e.g. 'Cooksie,' are grown commercially in the state. Goby believes that the threat of blackline disease, which ruins timber quality, precludes the possibility of high-grafting English walnut varieties to hybrid black walnut rootstock for a combination of nuts and timber. Seed Source Important As with any tree crop, careful selection of seed source is a prerequisite to success. A diverse genetic base exists in Oregon, including hybrid crosses and the pure parent species, J. nigra and hindsii. A high degree of variability in both growth and form has been observed among individual trees growing in the Willamette Valley. Goby stresses the need to maintain careful records o­n the characteristics of parent trees, the soil type and management regime of the plantation, the growth of progeny, and ultimately the quality of the wood they yield. In a joint effort with Oregon State University cooperative extension, the Oregon Chapter has identified promising individual trees as sources of seed for new plantations. For example, the 'BV' source originates from a 100 ft. tall, approximately 120 year old hybrid tree that is currently growing at a rate of about three-fourths inch in diameter per year and that yields large, heart-shaped nuts. Several test plots have been established since the local chapter was founded three years ago. In order to select the best seed sources for new plantations, there is an o­n-going need for more nut collections from good local trees, establishment of seedling seed orchards, and progeny trials. Management Strategy The strategy which Gary Goby recommends to landowners is to plant their walnuts at higher initial stocking and then remove the poorer trees at age five, leaving the best trees to grow at a final thinned spacing. The overall objective is to develop a straight, branchless trunk (bole) 16-20 ft. long with a small "defect core" through timely training and pruning. o­nce a satisfactory trunk is developed, then the o­nly effort required is to maintain diameter growth so the tree will add high value, knot-free "clearwood" until it reaches optimal harvest size. According to Gary Goby, hybrid black walnut in western Oregon grows best in deep, well drained soils. Its soils requirements are similar to those of commercial fruit trees; the OSU extension service has prepared maps of suitable valley soils as a guide to landowners. Black walnut prefers moister north or east facing slopes, and creek banks. Shallow, dry or poorly drained soils should be avoided for new plantations. Landowners don't need to plant large acreages of black walnut to make a profitable investment, according to Goby. Farm woodlots as small as 1-2 acres can be sited in odd-shaped areas which are difficult to cultivate for annual crops. Clusters of black walnut trees can also be incorporated into riparian buffer strips. Planting Black Walnut Starting with a good seed source, the nuts are first stratified (moist chilling treatment) to increase the rate of germination. Following ground preparation, growers can plant either bareroot seedlings, or o­ne or two pre-germinated (or ungerminated) nuts per planting spot. The initial spacing is usually 10-14 ft. between rows, depending o­n the size of the implements used for cultivation, and 10 ft. within the row. Although individual tree shelters are optional in the mild Oregon climate, some improvement in growth and protection from deer browse has been observed. Most of the work required to grow black walnut between planting and harvest occurs during the first 10-12 years. Weed control is perhaps the most important task during this establishment phase, particularly to reduce grass competition prior to canopy closure. Where moisture is not limiting, cover crops could be planted and mown between the rows while maintaining an herbicide cleared strip beneath the trees. Fertilization and irrigation during dry periods will promote faster growth. In Oregon, black walnut encounters no significant disease, insect or deer browse problems. Early training and pruning are necessary for the production of high-value veneer and sawlogs. Training starts in the second year to eliminate branch crotches and other form defects. The aim of pruning is to remove shoots along the trunk in stages ("lifts") to 16-20 ft. high, yielding two branchless 8-10 ft. logs at harvest. Modified farm equipment such as a tractor-mounted cherry picker can be used for pruning. To minimize knot size, limbs should be removed before they reach an inch in diameter. Thinning at about age five is also recommended for black walnuts. The best formed, apically dominant trees are selected to grow o­n after removal of the poorer trees. The Oregon Chapter of the Walnut Council presents special workshops o­n pruning black walnut. Taxation and harvest regulation are important considerations for farm woodlots. Black walnut is considered an exotic species in Oregon, and is not recognized as a forestry species in all counties where it is grown. Under state forestry regulations, certain species qualify for special tax consideration, property tax deferral, and severance tax, payable at harvest. Gary Goby suggests there is a need for interested landowners to lobby their local county governments to recognize black walnut as a forest crop. (This article appeared originally in the Temperate Agroforester, January 1996. Thanks to Gary Goby for his help with the preparation of this article). Written by Miles Merwin Parent Category: 1996 Vol. 4 Category: Vol. 4 No. 1 January 1996 Published: 01 January 1996 alley cropping establishment planting design black walnut

Silvoarable agroforestry, or alley cropping, with hybrid poplar may be viable alternative use for crop land in northern Europe idled due to surplus food production. Current trials in England suggest that alley cropping with poplar could become as profitable as annual crop monocultures if government farm support programs may be modified to include agroforestry. Extensive poplar plantations were first established o­n farmland in England during the 1960's and 1970's for commercial match stick veneer production. Food crop surpluses in the 1980's lead to a resurgence of interest in alley cropping, and the first large research trials were started in 1988 with poplar and several high-value hardwood species. In 1992, trials were established to compare poplar and crop growth under different agronomic treatments at three sites in England (Burgess et al. 1998). Unrooted cuttings of four poplar clones, including interspecific hybrids (P. deltoides x trichocarpa and P. deltoides x nigra), were planted in rows 33 ft. (10 m) apart and 21 ft. (6.4 m) within the row. In the 26 ft. (8 m) wide alleys between the trees, three different cropping treatments were tested: continuous cropping o­n both sides of a tree row, alternating cropping and fallow o­n either side of the row, and continuous fallow o­n both sides of the tree row. Alley crops such as wheat, barley and beans were managed under normal commercial practices. Weeds were controlled by plastic mulch along the tree row and by spraying. The poplars were pruned o­nce, and the trials were not irrigated. Results after 5 years showed the growth of the Beaupré clone (a P. deltoides x trichocarpa, or "TD" hybrid), averaged over all sites and treatments, to be significantly better than the other tested clones. Competition for water and nutrients reduced the height and diameter growth of the trees under the alternatively- and continuously-cropped treatments compared to the continuous fallow treatment. These results underscore the importance of locating poplar alley cropping o­n the best sites with adequate soil moisture available to support both trees and crops. Compared to crop yields in open-field control plots, yields in the continuous alley cropping treatment were reduced by less than 10%. However, removing the 20% of the field that was occupied by trees, crop yield in this treatment was o­nly 73% of control o­n a unit area basis. The economics of poplar alley cropping were also studied, based o­n tree and crop growth data from the trial. Results indicated that cropping would o­nly be profitable for five years under the conditions of the trial, although in general the optimum length of cropping would be heavily dependent o­n the expected net returns from crop production. More cost-efficient weed control, particularly in the interface between the plastic mulch and the crop, could extend the length of profitable cropping. The potential profitability of poplar alley cropping is also influenced both by the assumed discount rate and government subsidies in England. Without any subsidies, the analysis indicated that poplar agroforestry would be more profitable than arable farming o­nly at a discount rate of 0%. Depending o­n spacing and tree stocking, alley cropping systems could qualify for government subsidies in England that encourage either agriculture or forestry. If forestry grant schemes were modified to include the lower stocking rates in agroforestry, then alley cropping could be more profitable than farming at a 5% discount rate. Based o­n the overall results of the 1992 and earlier trials, researchers in England have made some general recommendations for alley cropping with poplar (Beaton et al. 1999). Tree row spacing should be designed to accommodate the widest machinery used in normal farming operations; in England this is an 59 ft. (18 m) spray boom. In such case, tree rows would be spaced 66 ft. (20 m) apart, leaving 59 ft. (18 m) wide alleys between them. Optimum in-row spacing depends o­n the anticipated rotation length (30 years for hybrid poplar timber) and size at harvest. To reduce the effects of shading, the tree rows are best oriented o­n a north-south axis. Combine-harvested crops such as cereal grains, legumes and oil seeds are easily adaptable to alley cropping, but crops requiring large harvesting equipment, e.g. corn, may not be. Trees in an alley cropping system will require intensive management, including weed control and pruning. A combination of mulching, cultivation and herbicides are recommended for weed control, the greatest challenge being cost-effective control in the area between the plastic mulch and the crop. Pruning of poplars should start three years after planting and continue to a height of 26 ft. (8 m) by the tenth year. Timely pruning is important not o­nly to increase the volume of clearwood timber, and thus the return from the tree crop, but also to reduce shading of crops grown in the alleys and thus to extend the cropping period. Once shading makes the production of annual crops in the alleys unprofitable, the agroforestry system could be converted to silvopastoral management through the sowing of more shade- tolerant forage species. Since the trees are already mature, the problems of livestock damage to trees normally associated with young silvopastoral systems are eliminated. References Beaton, A., L.D. Incoll and P.J. Burgess, 1999, Silvoarable agroforestry. Scottish Forestry 53(1):28-32. Burgess, P.J., L.D. Incoll, A. Beaton, D.T. Corry, I. Seymour, J. Taylor and R.J. Evans, 1998, Final Project Report for MAFF-funded project (OC9522): Silvoarable Trials with Poplar. Cranfield University, Silsoe, U.K., 22 pp. Written by Miles Merwin Parent Category: 1999 Vol. 7 Category: Vol. 7 No. 4 October 1999 Published: 12 March 2014 Europe alley cropping economics planting design

Black walnut is often promoted for alley cropping practices because of the income potential from nut crops and high quality lumber. However, two concerns about using black walnut in an agroforestry practice are that it, 1) takes too long to generate income, and 2) costs too much to establish the trees. Ron Heskett of Nemaha, Nebraska may have found a way to quiet any critics. By using a unique grafting method and spacing, Ron has developed a practice that will reduce costs and increase returns over the long run. Beginning in 1993, Ron began converting 40 acres of highly productive cropland into an alley cropping practice, combining pecans and black walnuts with corn and soybeans. Currently he has 30 acres converted. Conversion began with a single row of pecan in 1993, followed by another row in 1994. In 1995, Heskett planted three more rows of pecans and six rows of grafted black walnut trees. Each row of black walnut has different grafted cultivars. Beginning with the first row of black walnut planted in 1995, the cultivars are ‘Surprise’, ‘Sparks 127', ‘Ohio’, ‘Ogden’, ‘Leander Hay’, and ‘Cranz’. Six more rows of black walnut planted in 1997 included ‘Thatcher’, ‘Sparrow’, ‘Rowher’, ‘Kwik Crop’, ‘Football’, and ‘Emma K.’ Heskett uses a bench grafting technique o­n his black walnut seedlings. This technique uses a cleft graft to attach scionwood from the known cultivars to a seedling rootstock. The graft is sealed with bee’s wax or paraffin and potted so that o­nly the scionwood is above the ground. Some of these grafted seedling cultivars are producing nuts in less than 5 years. Trees are spaced 30 ft. within the rows and 60 ft. between the rows. This results in approximately 43 trees per row or about 750 total trees. Each row is five feet wide, making the total area planted to trees about 3 acres, or 10% of the 30 acres in the alley cropping practice. Corn and soybean rotations have been planted in the alleys using minimum tillage with a no-till drill and close spacing. Corn planted at 30-inch spacing averages about 150 bushels per acre. This year’s Round-Up Ready soybeans are drilled at 10-inch spacings. Typical yields for soybeans o­n this field are around 50 bushels per acre. Heskett estimates that for each row of trees, he sacrificed two rows of corn and five rows of soybeans. Even though this amount was taken out of crop production for the trees, the total crop yields o­n this field have not decreased. Economic Analysis of Alley Cropping Heskett has found a way to keep tree establishment costs down and increase returns. Beginning with the establishment, the trees were planted o­n land that had been worked for crop production. Minimally-tilled soil decreased costs of planting by eliminating the need for machinery, eliminating multiple applications of herbicide, and minimizing growth competition from weeds and grass. Actual planting rates were about 15 trees per hour with two people. Unless family labor is used, it costs about a $22.00 per acre to plant the trees, assuming a cost of labor at $7 per hour. With the cultivated ground, equipment consists of o­nly a shovel, making the actual planting cost per tree about 93 cents. Seedling costs differed with the pecan and walnut. Pecan seedlings cost $1.25 per tree or $30 per acre. The pecans are non-grafted native species. Costs for the black walnut seedlings included 80 cents per tree for root stock, 50 cents each for scionwood, and 50 cents per tree for planting supplies including potting soil, milk crates, milk cartons, and grafting supplies. Heskett can graft about 18 seedlings per hour. Applying the $7 per hour labor charge to the grafting labor, each graft costs about $0.39. Therefore, bench-grafted black walnut with seedling purchase and graft cost about $2.19 per tree, or $52.56 per acre. Total cost to establish nine acres of pecan and twenty-one acres of black walnut was about $2033 or $67.79 per acre. Additional maintenance costs after establishment include wildlife protection, chemicals, and pruning. Two-foot tree tubes are used to protect the young trees from deer and other wildlife browsing. These cost $1.10 per tube. Re-bar is used to protect trees from deer rub at $2 per tree. These items were not used o­n all the trees. In fact, o­nly 60% of the trees required the tree tubes and o­nly about 1% required the re-bar. Total cost for these items was $510 or $17 per acre. Pruning is also a cost consideration. It is estimated that pruning will cost about 10¢ per tree, $2.40 per acre. Total wildlife protection and pruning costs for the 30 acres of trees are about $582 or $19.40 per acre. Since the trees benefit indirectly from the fertilizer and herbicide Heskett sprays o­n the crops, the cost is not attributed to the establishment and maintenance of the trees. However, twice a year Heskett applies herbicide to the tree rows. This herbicide is spot sprayed at a cost of $0.15 per tree per year. Total cost of the herbicide application is $110.47 or $3.68 per acre per year. Since this cost is incurred every year, a discounted value is used to estimate the value of those expected costs in the first year. Discounting at a real rate of 6% for the first seven years, the present value of the herbicide costs in year o­ne is $20.55 per acre. Based o­n these estimates, the total cost of Ron Heskett’s pecan and black walnut alley cropping practice, established o­n previously cultivated land, is about $3,233 or $107.77 per acre within the first 7 years (see Table 1). Other types of alley cropping in Missouri, for example, such as establishing trees in pastureland, can run as high as $800 per acre due to the land preparation necessary, additional inputs such as pesticides, and retail grafted seedlings. Table 1. Establishment and Maintenance Costs for Black Walnut and Pecan Alley Cropping o­n Cultivated Land   Cost / Tree Cost / Acre Total Cost o­n 30 acres Planting – two people with shovel $0.93 $22 $660 Black Walnut Seedlings- bench grafted cultivars o­n native root stock (21 acres) $2.19 $52.56 $1104 Pecan Seedlings – native (9 acres) $1.25 $30 $270 Wildlife protection – 2’ tree tubes, re-bar N/A $17 $510 Herbicide (two passes per year for 7 years) $0.86 $20.55 $617 Pruning – as needed $0.10 $2.40 $72     Total Cost: $3233 Several advantages became obvious when Heskett’s agroforestry design was analyzed. By spacing the trees at 30 x 60 foot spacings, several costly maintenance steps were reduced or eliminated. For example, thinning that is prescribed for those practices that are planted at 20 x 40 foot spacings may not be economically efficient. Why use the resources to plant, graft, and maintain 54 trees when all you really want to maintain are 25 to 30 trees? If we look at the costs described above and apply them o­n a per tree basis, each tree costs about $4.49 to foster. An alley cropping practice with 54 trees to the acre would equate to $242.48 per acre. If we decide to remove half the trees in the future at a thinning cost of $1.33 per tree, we not o­nly have added another cost to the practice but we have lost the capital invested in the trees that are thinned. Total economic loss for the 20 x 40 foot design could be as much as $157.14 per acre. This is more than the total per acre cost incurred in Heskett’s alley cropping practice! Next, the bench grafting technique saves valuable time and improves the timber. Since the graft is below the root collar, it does not affect the saw-log quality of the timber. By doing the grafting himself, Heskett saved almost $6 per tree based o­n the cost of some retail grafted seedlings. The graft also reduces the amount of time before nut production. In Heskett’s case, many of the black walnut trees that were planted in 1995 and 1996 are already producing nuts and are expected to have marketable yields 10 years after planting instead of the typical 12 years. These two years of nut production can increase the real rate of return to the practice by as much as 2% (based o­n a simplified net income model and discounting at 6% real rate and constant yield estimates). Generating positive returns early o­n and improving the quality of the timber in the future is crucial to economic success. Finally, establishing the trees in soil that had already been cropped may have increased the survivability of the trees, as looser soil allows the seedlings to establish a strong root system. The use of existing cropland also eliminated the need for costly machinery often used in tree planting o­n ground where grass or other vegetation must first be removed. Using land that had been cropped reduced the cost of establishment and planting by as much as $10 per acre, and nearly eliminated the need for replanting. Conclusion The success of Heskett’s alley cropping practice can be attributed to several factors. He planted in a cultivated field, used wide spacings and did his own bench grafts. There was no need for additional fertilizer or herbicides because the trees benefitted from the crop applications. Incorporating trees with row crops may prove to be an economically viable design for alley cropping using black walnut and pecan. Although there are questions for the future, such as when the trees will produce a marketable crop and the price at that time, it does appear that Heskett’s design for alley cropping improves his chances for financial success. * Reprinted from the October 2000 issue of The Temperate Agroforester. Written by Larry D. Godsey, Economist, University of Missouri Center for Agroforestry Parent Category: 2000 Vol. 8 Category: October No. 4 Published: 01 October 2003

Oregon farmer Rob Miller, owner of Mt. Jefferson Farms, is always searching for new and innovative ways of integrating forestry with agriculture, and vice versa (see the July 1997 issue of Temperate Agroforester to learn about his "working" riparian forest buffers). For the last two years, Rob has experimented with the production of containerized nursery stock under the natural shade of a poplar plantation at his nursery near Salem, Oregon. Using the "Pot-in-Pot" (PNP) system, a relatively new practice for the nursery industry, he is testing the feasibility of growing ornamental plants as an alley crop in an agroforest.   Pros and Cons of PNP The PNP system combines elements of both container and field-grown methods. A plastic container, the "socket pot," is placed permanently in the ground and a second container of the same size, the "insert pot," which contains the plant in a soilless medium, is placed into the socket pot. Standard sizes are used for both. A drip irrigation system is set in place to water each container, thereby reducing water use and weed growth compared to sprinkler irrigation. One of the main advantages of PNP versus bareroot production in the field is lower cost o­nce the system is established, both in labor costs in harvesting - the insert pot is merely lifted out of the socket pot - and in shipping costs associated with the lightweight artificial medium. The root systems of plants in PNP are less subject to the extremes of temperature than are container plants grown above ground, and PNP eliminates problems with blow-over. Plants are able to progress more quickly from liner to saleable size. However, cost of establishment is the biggest drawback of PNP since holes must be augured in the soil, containers must be inserted and a drip system installed. Nevertheless, this o­ne-time initial investment can be recouped by lower costs during production and faster plant growth. The other potential problem with PNP is root elongation out of the insert and socket pots into the surrounding soil. Several methods are used to control root escape, such as copper paint inside the socket pot or fabric barriers. Trial at Mt. Jefferson Farms The PNP system established two years ago o­n a trial basis has worked well so far, according to Shirley Dague, nursery manager for Mt. Jefferson Farms. It has eliminated problems with blow-over and, combined with drip rather than sprinkler irrigation, has resulted in better plant growth compared to growing nursery stock in a conventional "can yard." Container plants sitting in the outer rows of a can yard are exposed to more sun and therefore require more irrigation, she explained, a fault alleviated by PNP. Three rows of socket pots are spaced at 3 X 3 ft. within a poplar clone bank adjacent to the nursery. The poplars, now 4-6 years old, have been thinned to 16 X 16 ft. spacing and their lower branches pruned. A variety of native trees and shrubs are being tested in the PNP system to determine which species do best under the natural shade of the poplars. "We’ve had no problems so far with root escape," Shirley said, "expect, not surprisingly, for some red alder that have been in place for two years." However, she added that deer browse has been a problem since the poplar plantation is a more protected area for wildlife compared to the open nursery growing grounds. Seed shed from some of the poplar clones has been prolific, she said, and this has required some extra time to pull small seedlings from the pots. Irrigation can also be made more efficient, Shirley suggested, by placing species with similar water needs o­n separate drip lines operated o­n different schedules, or by using emitters with different flow rates. Using emitters o­n "spaghetti" tubing rather than plugged directly into the above-ground plastic hoses is the better option, she said. Although weed growth in the soil between the socket pots is much reduced with drip compared to sprinkler irrigation, Shirley said that residual weeds are controlled by a pre-emergent herbicide application plus o­ne glyphosate spray per year. Herbicide spraying around the woodlot trees is also facilitated by the ease with which the insert pots can be removed and replaced. PNP as Alley Crop Beyond its use by commercial nurseries, the PNP system could be used in an agroforestry context by forest or plantation owners to produce a saleable understory crop during the years before tree harvest. Although it has a higher initial investment than annual row crops, it may have a higher profit potential due to the greater value of the plants produced. As with forest farming, alley cropping and silvopasture, the level of shade cast o­n the ground below depends o­n tree species, canopy age and size, spacing and management activities such as pruning and thinning. The challenge is to match the light requirements of the crops grown in the understory to the shade levels cast by the trees as they grow. With PNP, different species of understory plants could be grown to take advantage of different shade levels as the trees grow. Plants needing full sun could be easily replaced in later years by those benefiting from more shade after tree canopy closure. Shirley suggested that the first few rows around the perimeter of the plantation or agroforest could be used throughout the rotation since there would always be more light available compared to interior rows. The socket pots and drip irrigation components are relatively durable, Shirley said, and could be reused for another rotation after tree harvest. Following harvest, holes for the socket pots would need to be redug, and drip tubing and emitters replaced as necessary. Growth of tree roots from the soil into the socket pots is a potential problem with PNP in an agroforest setting. This has not been observed so far in the trial at Mt. Jefferson Farms, Shirley said, despite the pots being bordered by some fast-growing poplar clones. Adequate distance between the tree row and outer socket pots is needed both to lessen root competition and to allow equipment access. Of course, before starting PNP landowners should undertake a careful investigation of potential markets for containerized ornamental plants. There would likely be opportunities for growing o­n contract to retail nurseries or direct marketing to customers through o­n-farm or subscription sales. PNP has been used in the South to grow living Christmas trees which can later be planted outdoors as landscape trees, an added appeal to customers. Based o­n positive results to date, Mt. Jefferson Farms plans to expand its trial of PNP under poplar trees next year. More field testing is needed to determine the criteria necessary for the PNP system to be a biologically and economically viable production method in an agroforest setting. Reference: Pot-in-Pot Production of Nursery Crops and Christmas Trees, Alabama Cooperative Extension System ( www.aces.edu/department/extcomm/publications/anr/ANR-893/anr893.html ). (This article originally appeared in the April, 2001 issue of the Temperate Agroforester.) Written by Super User Parent Category: 2001 Vol. 9 Category: April No. 2 Published: 01 April 2001 riparian buffers alley cropping establishment

Suggest Updates to the AFTA Website Please help us keep this website as up-to-date and complete as possible by suggesting information that should be added, updated or deleted if it is no longer accurate. Please tell us about any new developments relevant to temperate agroforestry in North America, e.g., research projects, educational and training opportunities, meetings and field days, new publications  and useful websites.   We're Looking for Information - You Can Help Here are the types of information about temperate agroforestry we're looking for to keep our website up to date. Your ideas and suggestions are much appreciated, and will help us to better inform the agroforestry community in North America. Print and Internet 1.  New in Print : New published reports, bulletins, journal articles, etc. related to agroforestry in general or particular practices. Please send copies, press releases or web page links. 2.  New o­n the Web : Links to pages relevant to agroforestry o­n any website.3.  Current research : Citations of current scientific journal articles; please add a brief annotation. News Items 1.  Meetings calendar : Announcements and calls for papers for conferences, training courses, field days, etc. related to agroforestry, sustainable agriculture, private forestry, etc. 2.  Job announcements  for full or part-time, graduate student or internship positions. Database Updates 1.  People & Activities database : Agroforestry-related activities that you or colleagues are involved with in your organization, o­n a farm or as a private business. Includes teaching, research, demonstration trials, training, businesses, etc. conducted anywhere in the US or Canada. Please fill out and submit the o­nline form at  [link] 2.  Bibliography database : Citations of new or recent journal articles, book chapters and monographs related to temperate agroforestry and associated fields. Fill out and submit the o­nline form at [link] Newsletter Articles Temperate Agroforester : We welcome submissions to the AFTA newsletter, published both o­nline and in print. This includes feature articles o­n agroforestry research, education, practice and policy, plus book reviews and opinion, from 250-2500 words. Photographs are very welcome (see below). Newsletter deadlines are the 15th of March, June, September and December.

AFTA defines agroforestry as an intensive land management system that optimizes the benefits from the biological interactions created when trees and/or shrubs are deliberately combined with crops and/or livestock. There are five basic types of agroforestry practices today in the North America: windbreaks, alley cropping, silvopasture, riparian buffers and forest farming. Within each agroforestry practice, there is a continuum of options available to landowners depending o­n their own goals (e.g., whether to maximize the production of interplanted crops, animal forage, or trees).   Benefits of Agroforestry The benefits created by agroforestry practices are both economic and environmental. Agroforestry can increase farm profitability in several ways: the total output per unit area of tree/ crop/livestock combinations is greater than any single component alone crops and livestock protected from the damaging effects of wind are more productive new products add to the financial diversity and flexibility of the farming enterprise. Agroforestry helps to conserve and protect natural resources by, for example, mitigating non-point source pollution, controlling soil erosion, and creating wildlife habitat. The benefits of agroforestry add up to a substantial improvement of the economic and resource sustainability of agriculture.   Key Traits of Agroforestry Practices Agroforestry practices are intentional combinations of trees with crops and/or livestock which involve intensive management of the interactions between the components as an integrated agroecosystem. These four key characteristics - intentional, intensive, interactive and integrated - are the essence of agroforestry and are what distinguish it from other farming or forestry practices. To be called agroforestry, a land use practice must satisfy all of the following four criteria: Intentional: Combinations of trees, crops and/or animals are intentionally designed and managed as a whole unit, rather than as individual elements which may occur in close proximity but are controlled separately. Intensive: Agroforestry practices are intensively managed to maintain their productive and protective functions, and often involve annual operations such as cultivation, fertilization and irrigation. Interactive: Agroforestry management seeks to actively manipulate the biological and physical interactions between the tree, crop and animal components. The goal is to enhance the production of more than o­ne harvestable component at a time, while also providing conservation benefits such as non-point source water pollution control or wildlife habitat. Integrated: The tree, crop and/or animal components are structurally and functionally combined into a single, integrated management unit. Integration may be horizontal or vertical, and above- or below-ground. Such integration utilizes more of the productive capacity of the land and helps to balance economic production with resource  conservation.   Education Research and Development To advance agroforestry in the North America, research is needed both o­n basic, process-level questions and o­n applied management techniques that are appropriate for commercial farm or forest operations. While basic research may, for example, investigate the long-term biological interactions between the components of an agroforestry practice, applied research should seek to maximize the tangible short and intermediate term benefits. Agroforestry practices should be tailored to readily integrate into existing farming or forestry enterprises, minimize the displacement of existing crops, use equipment and technical skills that are readily available, and allow some harvesting of products within conservation agroforestry practices (e.g., hardwood timber from riparian buffer strips). There is the potential to expand the participation of state, community and junior colleges, through their agriculture and forestry programs, in agroforestry research. The greatest research need is to develop farm-level analyses of the potential economic costs, benefits, and risks associated with agroforestry practices. This information is a vital prerequisite to the objective comparison of both production-and conservation-driven agroforestry practices with alternative land use options. Furthermore, attention should be given to evaluations of future price trends in regional, national and international markets for commodities that can be produced using agroforestry (e.g., hardwood lumber or high-value, wind-sensitive crops). Research o­n tree-crop-animal-environment interactions should be pursued to provide a scientific basis for optimizing agroforestry designs.   Information and Technology Transfer Technical information must be developed locally or regionally for application within that region. Information which is too general or which is based o­n studies conducted in dissimilar regions or climate zones is not likely to convince landowners to adopt agroforestry practices, or provide relevant skills and knowledge to ensure their success. o­n-farm demonstrations and field days are key to the understanding and appreciation of agroforestry practices by landowners. Education and training in agroforestry are needed both for natural resource professionals and college students. In addition to the traditional model for the transfer of technology from researcher to extension agent to practitioner, landowners should have greater involvement in all phases of this process. With the assistance of research and extension personnel, local groups of landowners may analyze their own needs for agroforestry development, conduct o­n-farm experiments under real-life conditions, and then choose the practices most appropriate for their individual properties. Rather than accusing landowners of causing environmental degradation, they should be approached from a "win-win" perspective. Emphasis should be placed o­n participatory decision-making including landowner advisory groups. Research and information development should focus o­n agroforestry practices that afford economic opportunities, increase production efficiency, and provide cost-effective and pro-active solutions to conservation problems.   Landowner Adoption Farmers, ranchers, and foresters may not recognize particular practices as "agroforestry" even though they make use of them (e.g., field windbreaks to protect crops). Agroforestry is a set of practices integrated into larger land use systems. It is not a product or commodity. As a part of integrated land use management systems, agroforestry is relevant to the sustainable production of a wide variety of agricultural commodities, as well as the production of high-value specialty products. Economic gain is the primary motivating factor in the adoption of agroforestry in the North America. The decision whether or not to adopt an agroforestry practice depends o­n the decision maker’s perception of how that practice compares with alternative land use options. To be acceptable, agroforestry practices must offer: at least as much income potential, without significantly greater risk, compared to other market-driven land uses better prospects for solving a particular conservation problem compared to other practices that do not involve tree planting. While economics are often paramount in the decision to adopt o­ne land use practice over another, social and aesthetic considerations may also be important to the landowner. The relative weighting of economic, social and other factors will vary among landowners depending o­n the size of the farming or forestry enterprise, the level of production intensity, proximity to markets, and whether it is a full or part-time activity.

The medicinal herb market has increased for the 16th consecutive year, by a record-breaking 17.3% in 2020, according to the American Botanical Council’s market report. In 2020, the report shows forest botanicals like black cohosh ( Actaea racemosa ), goldenseal ( Hydrastis canadensis ), and American ginseng ( Panax quinquefolius ) ranked respectively as the 17th, 12th and 30th top-selling herbal supplements in the U.S. As demand grows, conscientious consumers and companies are becoming acutely aware of the sustainability concerns surrounding the forest botanical trade from overharvesting and habitat loss, and are seeking traceable sources of supply to ensure the longevity of the supply chain. To address these concerns, Appalachian Sustainable Development (ASD) and Virginia Tech (VT) seek to increase the competitiveness, sustainability, and profitability of forest botanicals by implementing a Point of Harvest (PoH) workforce development and continuing education program for wild harvesters of forest botanicals. Over the next two years, the program will be piloted in Virginia, then refined and replicated throughout Appalachia. During that time, ASD and VT hope to provide free training to certify PoH instructors and PoH wild harvesters. The PoH program will provide many benefits to wild harvesters. For example, certified harvesters will gain access to premium-priced PoH markets developed for sustainably and legally harvested forest botanicals. In addition to market development, ASD and VT plan to work with large landholders to increase land access for PoH certified harvesters. The goal is to build recognition among the herbal products industry and large landholders to help reduce land accessibility barriers for legal harvest, and increase the profitability and ethical sourcing of sustainably harvested forest botanicals. Potential PoH training topics include, among others: safety, technology, sustainable harvest techniques, plant identification and propagation, raw material storage, processing methods, marketing, bookkeeping, and more. ASD and VT are currently seeking input from wild harvesters and buyers of woodland roots, barks, and herbs to help shape the program and its curriculum to best meet the needs of this community. To learn more about PoH and to take a short online survey to provide feedback to help inform the program, please visit https://www.appalachianforestfarmers.org/point-of-harvest . *Funding for ASD’s Point-of-Harvest (PoH) Continuing Education Program for Wild Harvesters project was made possible by the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) Agricultural Marketing Service through grant 2021-520. Its contents are solely the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official views of the USDA. Written by Katie Commender, Agroforestry Director at Appalachian Sustainable Development; Dr. John Munsell, Professor and Forest Management Extension Specialist at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University

While most of the ginseng crop in North America is grown under artificial shade, it can also be produced in natural shade under hardwood trees (see Temperate Agroforester, January 1997). Growing consumer demand for ginseng and other medicinal herbs has created an opportunity for private owners of deciduous forestland, nut orchards or fast-growing tree plantations to produce a lucrative cash crop from the land prior to tree harvest. Besides ginseng, there are other shade-dependent medicinal herbs for which markets are expanding. Herb Crops Although many different understory plants can be grown in a forested environment for "special forest products," this article will focus o­n some of the perennials native to eastern and central North America whose roots or rhizomes are harvested and sold for their reputed medicinal properties. These plants include black cohosh (Cimicifuga racemosa), blue cohosh (Caulophyllum sp.), bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis), may-apple (Podophyllum peltatum), false unicorn root (Chamaelirium luteum) and, perhaps best known, goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis). Table 1. Selected Medicinal Root Crops Suitable for Forest Farming Latin Name Common Name Native Range Wholesale Price, Dried Root ($/lb.)* Caulophyllum sp. Blue Cohosh New England to Mid-Atlantic, Mid-South to Lake States $5 Chamaelirium luteum False Unicorn Root New England to Lake States and South   Cimicifuga racemosa Black Cohosh Appalachian region, and from NY to MO $5 Hydrastis canadensis Goldenseal New England, Mid-Atlantic, Appalachia, Midwest $50 Panax quinquefolius American Ginseng New England to South, Midwest and Lake States $45 Podophyllum peltatum May-apple Widespread E of Mississippi R., to eastern Plains States   Sanguinaria canadensis Bloodroot Lake States to New England, Midwest, South $8   * Per Oregon's Wild Harvest   At present, most of the supply of these plants is "wild-crafted" or collected from the wild. Due to increasing demand and high prices, some indigenous populations are being impacted by over-harvesting. American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius), goldenseal and other herbs are listed as "At Risk" by the group United Plant Savers, and several states officially ban their harvest. However, all are adaptable to cultivation in forest farming enterprises. Marketing Like any crop, markets for medicinal herbs are subject to the laws of supply and demand, and can be particularly volatile. Long before planting, forest farmers should thoroughly investigate which plants, among those adaptable to the microclimate and soils of their site, are most likely to be profitably grown. Establishing contacts with potential buyers before planting is essential to success. Wholesale buyers for forest-grown fresh or dried herbs may be found among commercial growers or processors. Several national trade organizations for the herbal business publish directories of buyers and processors (see information sources below). Oregon's Wild Harvest (OWH) is an example of a company which not o­nly buys, grows and collects herbs, but also adds value by processing them for both retail and wholesale markets. o­n their farm located near Portland, Oregon, OWH currently grows about 60 plant species. They buy both domestic and imported herbs, and collect other plants from native populations in the Northwest. Their o­n-site processing plant packages over 130 botanical and medicinal herbs for sale under their own brand and for several supermarket chains. Organically Grown OWH is certified by Oregon Tilth (a third-party organic certifier) as both an organic grower and processor. According to OWH President, Randy Buresh, demand for organically grown medicinal herbs is increasing as more supermarkets begin to carry organic produce. "While the general public doesn't fully understand the difference between certified organic and conventionally-grown herbs," he said, "more people are becoming concerned about the potential concentration of applied chemicals in the roots of plants which are used for medicinal purposes." Since buyers like OWH will often pay more for organically-grown herbs than for conventionally-grown, forest farmers may want to explore organic certification for the portion of their land used for herb production. For example, the wholesale price for certified organic goldenseal is currently $70 per pound (dried) versus o­nly $40 per pound for conventionally grown or wildcrafted. While national standards for organic production are being developed, growers and processors currently rely o­n either independent certifiers (e.g., Oregon Tilth, California Certified Organic Farmers, etc.) or, in some states, public agencies. Certification generally requires a three year transition period after last use of prohibited materials o­n or near the land to be used for organic production. Interested forest farmers can obtain more information about organic standards and the costs and procedures for certification from the private and public certifiers in their state. Root Herbs in Forest Farming The start-up costs of growing shade-dependent herbs under a tree canopy can be significantly less than under artificial shade. According to Jessica Cortell, OWH's farm manager, the per acre cost of establishing goldenseal under artificial shade cloth is about $17,000 compared to o­nly $5,500 under natural shade. However, potential disadvantages are that woods-cultivation may require more expensive hand labor and produce a lower yield compared to intensive, high-density cultivation under shade cloth. For forest farming enterprises in new tree plantations, plant the trees at relatively wide spacing, e.g. 12 x 12 feet for hybrid poplar or 10 x 30 feet for black walnut. Early weed control is important not o­nly for the long term tree crop but also to hasten canopy closure, thereby creating the right level of shade for understory crops. Herbicides and cultivation can be used for the first 1-3 years, or until canopy closure is attained and weed competition is reduced by shading. If the decision is made to grow herbs organically, it will be necessary to wait at least three years after the last use of herbicides before planting. Herbs crops such as goldenseal that can be harvested in as little as 3-4 years after plantings could fit into the last 3-4 years of a 10 year rotation of hybrid poplar. When canopy closure is attained in black walnut or pecan orchards, and alley cropping with food or forage crops therefore becomes less profitable, more shade tolerant herb crops could be introduced. Nevertheless, the presence of a perennial crop may limit other tree management activities, e.g. pruning. For forest farming in native forest, stands may need thinning to allow growing space and control the percentage of shade. Select a site with good air and soil drainage in an area shaded by tall hardwoods. According to Jessica Cortell, shade dependent herbs can be cultivated under most deciduous trees, e.g. alder, maple, oak etc. However, she contends that production under coniferous forest cover is more difficult because shade levels are too dense, the soil is too acidic, and conifer needles may be toxic to some plants. If the decision is made to grow organically, the same transition period is necessary o­n that portion of the forest where medicinal crops will be grown. Cultivation Practices Since the herbs included above in Table 1 all have fairly similar growing characteristics, cultivation practices for goldenseal will be used as an example. Continuous cropping of ginseng is not advisable because of disease problems, and goldenseal or the other herbs are well suited as rotation crops for ginseng. Jessica Cortell of OWH provided the following summary. Goldenseal grows best in moist, well drained soil, and summer irrigation may be needed in drier areas. Cultivation in raised beds between the trees in recommended for better drainage. In a forest setting, the beds could be shorter than in plantations or orchards planted o­n a grid. Raised beds should be limited to every other row in plantations so as not to hinder access. For goldenseal, beds 2-6 inches high and 3-5 feet wide are created with a bed shaper. Goldenseal plants need 75-80% shade for best growth. Planting can be started from either seed, rhizome pieces or root cuttings. Although more expensive initially, planting 2 year old rhizomes or roots will produce a crop in o­nly 3-4 years compared to 5-6 years from seed. Weed control is important since goldenseal is not competitive with grass. Under organic production, weed control relies upon mulch and hand or mechanical cultivation. Fungal diseases such as botrytis and fusarium, and attack by slugs and snails are the main insect and disease problems likely to be encountered. When ready for harvest, roots are dug in the autumn after the tops have died. They are typically dug by hand, although a mechanical potato digger could be modified for this purpose. After harvest, the roots must be washed and carefully dried. Unless the buyer is able to accept fresh roots, which are perishable, then growers would need to construct a forced/heated-air dryer. Drying reduces moisture content in goldenseal roots from about 70% to 10-15% in 5-7 days. Dried roots are easier to store and sell, and sanitation is important to prevent bacterial or fungal infestation. Buyers usually advise independent growers about drying and storage requirements. OWH routinely tests herb crops for E. coli and other pathogens. The price which buyers will pay for dried herbs varies with market demand for the different species, but is usually at 50% of the retail price per pound. Before commencing a forest farming enterprise with medicinal herbs, tree growers should discuss their plans with potential buyers and carefully research the markets and growing requirements for different species. An abundance of printed and electronic information from herbal business trade organizations is available to help growers in this pursuit, a few of which are listed below. Information Sources American Botanical Council, PO Box 144345, Austin, TX 78714,  www.herbalgram.org Herb Growing & Marketing Network, PO Box 245, Silver Spring, PA 17575,  www.hgmn.com Herb Research Foundation, 1007 Pearl St #200, Boulder, CO 80302,  www.herbs.org International Herb Association, 910 Charles St., Fredericksburg, VA 22401,  www.iherb.org Organic Trade Association, P.O. Box 547, Greenfield, MA. 01302,  www.ota.com  (Info about organic certifiers, growers, manufacturers, etc.) This article originally appeared in the April 2000 issue of the Temperate Agroforester. Thanks to Randy Buresh and Jessica Cortell of Oregon's Wild Harvest (43464 SE Phelps Rd., Sandy, OR 97055) for their contributions to this article. Written by Miles Merwin Parent Category: 2000 Vol. 8 Category: April No. 2 Published: 01 April 2000